Multicultural
Career Education and Development
The implications
fof cultural diversity constitute one of the most critical
issues facing the United States today. Census data show rapid
increases in nonwhite populations, a vast reserve of human
potential that makes a multicultural focus imperative for
career education and development (Locke and Parker 1991).
What is meant by a multicultural perspective? Wurzel (1984)
defines it as a critical and reflective understanding of oneself
and others in historical and cultural contexts, an awareness
of both differences and human similarities. For career educators
and counselors, it means infusing practice with an awareness
of their own personal and cultural background and experiences
as well as those of their students or clients.
Self-concept and
identity are crucial to career development. Cultural values
and beliefs have great influence on the formation of self-concept;
therefore, effective career development must take culture
into account (Rifenbary 1991). The purpose of multicultural
career education and development is to foster positive self-concepts
and career choices regardless of cultural background, encourage
understanding of the contributions of all cultural groups,
and develop effective intercultural communication skills.
This article examines how career education and development
can respond to the cultural diversity of school and workplace.
CULTURAL
IDENTITY AND CAREER DEVELOPMENT
World view--the attitudes, values, opinions, and beliefs with
which a person perceives the world--is influenced by cultural
heritage and life experiences. Locke and Parker (1991) explain
how different combinations of Locus of Control (LC) and Locus
of Responsibility (LR) affect the formation of world view.
Four combinations are as follows: (1) Internal LC-Internal
LR--feelings of high personal control and personal attributions
of success or failure; (2) External LC-Internal LR--acceptance
of the dominant culture's definition of self-responsibility;
(3) External LC-External LR--feelings of a lack of both control
and responsibility; and (4) Internal LC-External LR--belief
in individual efficacy but perceptions of external barriers
to action.
The category that
corresponds with an individual's world view derives from his/her
cultural background as well as the historical, social, and
economic experience of that cultural group. This is the context
in which students will attempt to act on their career choices
(ibid.). One of the dangers of multiculturalism is thinking
that all members of a group share identical characteristics.
However, cultural awareness must begin with understanding
of such differences as world view, bearing in mind that people
are a complex product of gender, ethnicity, and individuality
(Gainor and Forrest 1991).
Another dimension
of difference is nonverbal communication styles. Interpretations
of words, gestures, spatial and temporal relationships, and
touch can vary among groups (Herring 1985). Other values and
perspectives on which groups may differ are as follows: cause
and effect, holistic versus linear thinking, competition versus
harmony, long- versus short-term goals, view of the teacher
or counselor as authority or facilitator, collectivism versus
individualism, degree of tolerance for ambiguity, assertiveness
versus restraint, and authoritarian versus democratic family
structures (Leong 1991; Rifenbary 1991; Wurzel 1984). According
to Herring (1985), intercultural communication means the ability
to approximate another person's meanings, without necessarily
agreeing with them. A culturally effective career educator
has a wide repertoire of skills to interpret the world views
and communication styles of students and to select the best
strategies and techniques to help them.
How does culture
affect career development? An El Paso, Texas, project provides
an example. Hispanic females have high dropout rates and the
lowest college attendance rate of any ethnic population (Tinajero,
Gonzalez, and Dick 1991). The alienation of many Latinas from
school stems from lack of role models and counseling, stereotypes
in curriculum, and low teacher expectations. Mothers are a
strong influence, but many mothers have low educational levels
and lower expectations for their daughters (ibid.). The Mother-Daughter
Program jointly operated by the University of Texas, the YWCA,
and El Paso School District builds on the strong maternal
influence. Sixth-grade girls and their mothers participate
in a program designed to acquaint them with careers and college,
raise aspirations, introduce them to Hispanic female role
models, and help mothers to be role models. The program targets
sixth-graders because it is felt that the pre-high school
period is a critical time before girls conform to cultural
norms and restrict their own options. Program activities include
campus tours, career day, community service projects, awards
ceremonies, and summer camp, a 2-day immersion in campus life.
An important factor in the program's success is respect for
the participants' language (using bilingual materials) and
cultural traits.
TECHNIQUES
FOR MULTICULTURAL CAREER DEVELOPMENT
A key to effective career education and development for diverse
groups is the sensitivity and awareness of educators and counselors.
Locke and Parker (1991) describe the cross-cultural awareness
continuum, which educators and counselors can use to gauge
their growth in intercultural competence, a lifelong, ongoing
process. The levels of the continuum are as follows:
--Self-awareness
--Awareness of
one's own culture
--Awareness of
racism, sexism, and poverty
--Awareness of
individual differences
--Awareness of
other cultures
--Awareness of
diversity
--Career education
skills/techniques
Culturally skilled
career counselors or educators are aware of their own ethnicity
and personal prejudices, have knowledge and understanding
of culturally diverse groups, and have knowledge of culturally
relevant strategies, skills, materials, and resources (Rifenbary
1991).
Examples of a secondary
and a postsecondary program illustrate ways of integrating
multicultural techniques. The Iowa Department of Public Instruction's
(1986) approach to secondary multicultural career education
begins with the premise that students must see themselves
reflected in the curriculum and must see the potential for
themselves in various careers. The curriculum has five parts:
(1) self-concept (including race, sex, national origin, and
physical condition); (2) understanding of the world of work;
(3) understanding of the contributions of all groups to society;
(4) commonalities of the human race, uniqueness of individuals
and cultural groups; and (5) interpersonal and intergroup
communication. The Iowa curriculum includes a self-evaluation
checklist to assess the following aspects of schools and programs:
--Diverse role
models on staff
--Diverse student
enrollments across courses and curricula
--Multicultural,
nonsexist content integrated into curriculum philosophy, goals,
objectives, and evaluation
--Instructional
materials representative of cultural diversity and gender
--Culturally aware
teaching strategies, behavior, and attitudes
Case Western Reserve
University's Minority Career Awareness Program addresses three
factors considered important in minority career development:
friendly atmosphere, leadership opportunities, and a sense
of success (Barnard, Burney, and Hurley 1990). The program
features the student-run Careers Unlimited Corporation (CUC),
which sponsors workshops that provide interaction with minority
professionals. The CUC simulates workplace situations, enabling
students to develop and test leadership abilities in a supportive
environment, receive feedback on interpersonal skills, and
learn about organizational dynamics.
The following strategies
synthesize from a number of sources some approaches to multicultural
career education/development:
--Teachers and
counselors should establish a climate of acceptance, have
high expectations for student achievement, and foster positive
self-concepts and cultural identity. Gainor and Forrest (1991)
consider it important to assess the strengths of the multiple
parts of self-concept: psychophysiological, ethnic/cultural,
and individual.
--A cultural group
should not be thought of as homogeneous. For example, Asians
are composed of many different subgroups (Lee and Richardson
1991). Native American differences appear among tribes, in
urban and rural environments, and intergenerationally (ibid.).
Teachers should strive for a balanced view of students as
individuals and group members (Locke and Parker 1991).
--Curriculum materials
should be representative of all groups in a wide range of
careers.
--Bilingualism
should be valued and students' language and culture incorporated
in instruction. Students should be helped to learn the difference
between feelings of superiority and pride in one's heritage
(Locke and Parker 1991). Reflective teaching practices (Wurzel
1984) and sharing of the teacher's own ethnicity and background
(Rifenbary 1991) can foster a sense of community.
--Differences in
communication styles, learning styles, and decision-making
styles should be assessed and appropriate teaching and counseling
methods selected (Herring 1985; Leong 1991; Rifenbary 1991).
ISSUES
IN A MULTICULTURAL APPROACH
Although a goal of career development is empowering people
to change their lives, a focus solely on individual competence
ignores the effects of external forces. Teachers and counselors
are encouraged to be advocates for students by recognizing
problems that are systemic rather than individual (Rifenbary
1991). Acting as change agents, they can seek commitment from
administrators for a multicultural perspective, examine institutional
practices and the values they represent, and question the
assumed universality of theories, methods, and instruments
used in career development.
Lee and Richardson (1991) recognize the potential of counselors
as systemic change agents but identify some concerns about
an overbroad definition of multiculturalism and the potential
for a new kind of racism by overemphasis on differences. They
present the following considerations for a multicultural approach:
--The importance
of a group's history, the way its perspective is derived from
exclusion from power
--The level of
ethnic identity and acculturation
--Influence of
family, sex role socialization, and religion
--The way a group
has been named or labeled
--Some groups'
traditional mistrust of counseling and education as tools
of social control
Locke and Parker
(1991) conclude that system commitment to meaningful career
education, a belief that students can learn and want to learn,
and educators and counselors who value the worth and dignity
of all students are the keys to successful multicultural career
development.
REFERENCES
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Minority Students in Career Services." JOURNAL OF CAREER
PLANNING AND EMPLOYMENT 50, no. 3 (March 1990): 43-47. (EJ
412 910).
Gainor, K. A., and Forrest, L. "African American Women's
Self-Concept." CAREER DEVELOPMENT QUARTERLY 39, no. 3
(March 1991): 261-272. (EJ 428 194)
Herring, R. D.
"A Cross-Cultural Review of Nonverbal Communication with
and Emphasis on the Native American." 1985. (ED 324 708)
Iowa Department
of Public Instruction. CAREER EDUCATION. MULTICULTURAL AND
NONSEXIST EDUCATION IN IOWA SCHOOLS. Des Moines: IA DPI, 1986.
(ED 274 865)
Lee, C. C., and
Richardson, B. L., eds. MULTICULTURAL ISSUES IN COUNSELING.
Alexandria, VA: American Association for Counseling and Development,
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Leong, F. T. L.
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of Asian American and White American College Students."
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(EJ 428 190)
Locke, D. C., and
Parker, L. D. A MULTICULTURAL FOCUS ON CAREER EDUCATION. INFORMATION
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and Vocational Education, 1991. (ED 341 877)
Rifenbary, D. AN
INTRODUCTION TO MULTICULTURAL ISSUES IN CAREER DEVELOPMENT.
Albuquerque: University of New Mexico, 1991. (ED 338 940)
Tinajero, J. V.;
Gonzalez, M. L.; and Dick, F. RAISING CAREER ASPIRATIONS OF
HISPANIC GIRLS. Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa Education
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Wurzel, J. S. "Teaching
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